CONFUCIUS
Methods and Style
As we have seen, Confucius considered himself a teacher and
worked as diligently as he could to instruct his students.
How did he relate to them? The main requirement to study with
Confucius was a desire to learn, although he did accept pay
or gifts. "From the very poorest upwards--- beginning
even with the man who could bring no better present than a
bundle of dried meat---none has ever come to me without receiving
instruction."1 Confucius did not set himself up as a
man of wisdom, and no matter how humble the student may have
been, he was ready and willing to discuss the issue on its
own terms; thus anyone in the world could become a fellow
learner with him due to his openness. "Do I regard myself
as a possessor of wisdom? Far from it? But if even a simple
peasant comes in all sincerity and asks me a question, I am
ready to thrash the matter out, with all its pros and cons,
to the very end."2
Although he was willing to instruct anyone, he did not necessarily
agree to take on responsibility for all of the person's future
actions. Once while in a village where the people were not
very receptive to his teachings, an "uncapped boy"
(not yet initiated into manhood) asked to be admitted. The
disciples were in doubt whether to bring him in before the
master, but Confucius clarified the point: "In sanctioning
his entry here I am sanctioning nothing he may do when he
retires. We must not be too particular. If anyone purifies
himself in order to come to us, let us accept this purification.
We are not responsible for what he does when he goes away."3
There is no definite indication of what age his students were,
but this does appear to be an exceptional case due to the
lack of interest among the adults of the community. It is
generally assumed that most of Confucius' students and disciples
were adults, some of them even in his own age group. Two other
incidents concern boys or young men. When he found Yuan Jang
waiting for him in a sprawling position, Confucius said, "Those
who when young show no respect to their elders achieve nothing
worth mentioning when they grow up. And merely to live on,
getting older and older, is to be a useless pest." With
this he struck him across the shins with his staff.4 This
is the only known case where Confucius used anything like
physical punishment. Perhaps it was used because what needed
correction had to do with physical posture and respect. Another
time someone asked him about the progress of a youth who gained
entrance to Confucius' house as a messenger. With insightful
observation Confucius said, "Judging by the way he sits
in grown-up people's places and walks alongside of people
older than himself, I should say he was bent upon growing
up quickly rather than upon improving himself."5 After
all, learning was the important thing, not mere association.
Effort in Learning
The most important characteristic which Confucius asked from
his students, then, was that they make the effort to learn.
He encouraged them to make this effort by allowing them room
to think for themselves. "I do not enlighten those who
are not eager to learn, nor arouse those who are not anxious
to give an explanation themselves. If I have presented one
corner of the square and they cannot come back to me with
the other three, I should not go over the points again."6
Naturally it is helpful if the student is intelligent and
can grasp things easily. Yet he emphasizes that as long as
the student is making the effort he will continue to help
him. "The case is like that of someone raising a mound.
If he stops working, the fact that it perhaps needed only
one more basketful makes no difference; I stay where I am.
Whereas even if he has not got beyond leveling the ground,
but is still at work, the fact that he has only tilted one
basketful of earth makes no difference. I go to help him."7
Here Confucius also indicates that how far a person has advanced
in his studies does not determine how much help he will receive
from his teacher, but again whether he is working to continue
to improve himself.
When it came to the essential self-improvement of one's character,
Confucius did not even allow his own limitations to hold back
the student, but encouraged them even through friendly rivalry.
"When it comes to goodness, one need not avoid competing
with one's teacher."8 However, he could not find too
many who were willing to apply themselves to learning strictly
for self-improvement rather than for extrinsic rewards such
as career gain. "One who will study for three years without
thought of reward would be hard indeed to find."9 Jan
Ch'iu was one of those who only stayed with Confucius until
he was able to receive a good position in the government.
Jan Ch'iu made this excuse: "It is not that your Way
does not commend itself to me, but that it demands powers
I do not possess." Whereupon Confucius rebuked him for
quitting: "He whose strength gives out collapses during
the course of the way, but you deliberately draw the line."10
A keen student of human nature, Confucius was able to see
that people tended to be lazy rather than work too hard. So
he naturally pointed this out: "Those who err on the
side of strictness are few indeed!"11 When he did find
a student whose diligence exceeded what was expected, he showed
his approval by a warm response. When Ch'i-tiao K'ai was encouraged
by the master to take office, he replied, "I have not
yet sufficiently perfected myself in the virtue of good faith."
Confucius was delighted.12
Not only did Confucius encourage his students to make effort
in learning, but most important was that they put what they
heard into practice through actual deeds. Can there be any
wisdom without action? Self-improvement to this teacher meant
actually changing oneself for the better. "The words
of the Model Sayings cannot fail to commend themselves to
us; but what matters is that we should carry them out. For
those who approve but do not carry out, who are stirred, but
do not change, I can do nothing at all."13 Perhaps we
need to revise the common notion that wisdom consists of proverbs
and moral homilies or even appreciation of same. To Confucius,
of ultimate importance was the improvement of character, and
when he saw someone working to better himself, he did all
he could to assist him. In these ways, then, he encouraged
his students to put forth positive effort.
How Confucius perceived that he himself learned naturally
influenced greatly how he taught others. Although he does
not rule out the possibility of acting correctly without having
to think, Confucius' own experience was that he had to learn
by observation and study what was best to do. "There
are those who act without knowing why, but I am not one of
them. To hear much and select what is good and follow it,
to see much and take note of it, is the second type of knowledge."14
His feeling that he did not act best spontaneously and automatically
was probably a major reason why he emphasized learning so
much. Consequently this is the method he used in teaching.
He had experimented one time with meditation, but he did not
consider the results to be as good as from study. "I
once spent a whole day without food and a whole night without
sleep, in order to meditate. It was no use. It is better to
learn."15 Confucius was not one to reject something without
trying it. As a teacher he recommended to his students what
he found to be most successful in his own experience.
What really did impress Confucius was the teaching of the
ancients. In humility and perhaps also with the awareness
that the valuable wisdoms are eternal and not original with
any one individual, he claimed he was only a transmitter not
a creator of new ideas. "I have transmitted what was
taught me without making up anything of my own. I believe
in and love the ancients."16 Like a good transmitter
he allowed the information to continually flow through without
trying to hold anything back. His openness and honesty allowed
his disciples to learn all that he knew, if they could. "My
friends, I know you think that there is something I am keeping
from you. There is nothing at all that I keep from you. I
take no steps about which I do not consult you, my friends."17
This does not necessarily mean that he told everyone everything,
but the close disciples he was addressing here he has taken
into his fullest confidence (cf. Analects 9:29 where he recommends
taking counsel only with the most select people). Yet at the
same time he did not waste his time by trying to teach advanced
ideas to those who were not capable of understanding them.
"To those who have risen above the middling sort, one
may talk of the higher things. But to those who are below
the middling sort it is useless to talk of things that are
above them."18
To be a good teacher Confucius believed he had to continually
be a good student. Thus one of his most important methods
of teaching was to be an attentive listener in order to learn
from his students how to teach them. "To listen silently,
to learn untiringly, and to teach others without being wearied---that
is just natural with me."19 Patience and perseverance
were qualities which apparently enabled Confucius to stay
with his students until they finally saw the light. This continual
striving to better himself and others must have given the
master an enduring energy. If he was so vigilant and disciplined
with himself, he must have been an ever-present model for
his students even if he did not expect as much from them as
he required from himself. "The thought that I have not
properly cultivated virtue, that what is learned has not been
thoroughly discussed, that knowing what is right I have not
moved toward it, that what is wrong I have not been able to
change ---these are the things which bother me."20 By
examining himself so conscientiously he was inviting his listeners
to work on improving their characters also, but he was doing
it authentically without preaching or inflicting upon their
freedom. By thinking out loud in this way he was showing them
how to begin the work on oneself.
Although most of Confucius' teaching was through the conversational
style, he once expressed the wish not to speak. One of his
disciples immediately objected; they expected their teacher
always to be talking with them so they could pass on his teachings.
Confucius used the situation to call their attention to the
silent teachings of Nature. "Does Heaven speak? Yet the
four seasons run their course and all creatures are born according
to it. Does Heaven speak?"21 Perhaps he was pointing
out that there is a greater teacher which would remain even
after he had gone.
Individualized Instruction
Confucius recognized that people learn in different ways with
varying abilities, and the highest class was even beyond him.
"Highest are those who are born wise. Next are those
who become wise by learning. After them come those who have
to work hard in order to acquire learning. Finally, to the
lowest class of the common people belong those who work hard
without ever managing to learn."22 The master carefully
observed each of his students to study the strengths and weaknesses
of their character. When Tzu-kung asked Confucius who was
better between Shih and Shang, he readily replied, "Shih
goes too far and Shang does not go far enough." Tzu-kung
assumed that this meant that Shih excelled, but the master
corrected him, "To go too far is as bad as not to go
far enough."23
Once he understood the character of his students he was then
able to individualize his teaching for the good of each person.
Tzu-lu and Jan Ch'iu both became important in government,
yet Confucius knew that he had to handle them in opposite
ways if each was to improve. Tzu-lu once asked Confucius whether
one should put a maxim into practice as soon as he heard it.
Confucius pointed out that Tzu-lu's father and elder brother
were still alive, and asked him how could he apply it immediately,
probably hoping that he would take counsel before rushing
off into action. Yet when Jan Ch'iu asked exactly the same
question, Confucius told him that one should immediately put
it into practice. A third student who had heard both conversations
became confused, and asked Confucius for an explanation. The
master said, "Ch'iu is retiring and slow, so I urged
him on. Yu tends to be fanatical, so I held him back."24
Tzu-lu was well-known for his boldness and daring, and Confucius
was aware of this. Another time when he was in a humorous
mood, probably to overcome his discouragement, Confucius said,
"The Way makes no progress. I shall get upon a raft and
float out to sea. I am sure Yu (Tzu-lu's nickname) would come
with me." Hearing this, Tzu-lu became enthusiastic, so
that Confucius said, "That is Yu indeed! He sets far
too much store by feats of physical daring, but he does not
exercise his judgment."25 Thus Confucius labored to encourage
him to do so.
When asked whether Tzu-lu was good, Confucius said he did
not know. When the question was repeated, he responded, "In
a country of a thousand war-chariots Yu could be trusted to
carry out the recruiting. But whether he is good I do not
know." Then he was asked about Jan Ch'iu. The master
believed that he could govern a clan of a hundred chariots,
but he did not know whether he was good. A third student he
said could take a place at court and converse but again he
did not know whether he was good.26 Although Confucius knew
the practical abilities of his students, he still did not
claim to know if they were truly virtuous, so high a value
did he place on goodness itself.
Tzu-kung, another important disciple, asked the master's
opinion of him. Confucius called him a vessel. Tzu-kung asked,
"What sort of vessel?" Confucius replied, "A
sacrificial vase of jade!"27 This implies again that
the master would not call him good, although he was capable
of being used on high occasions. On another occasion Tzu-kung
expressed Confucius' version of the golden rule: "What
I do not want others to do to me, I do not want to do to them."
Confucius was quick to point out that he had not lived up
to that yet. "Ah Tz'u! You have not quite got to that
point yet."28 Apparently Tzu-kung was often criticizing
other people. Confucius must have considered this a negative
activity, because he said, "It is fortunate for Tz'u
that he is so perfect himself as to have time to spare for
this. I myself have none."29 By giving his own positive
example with a little irony, Confucius subtly attempts to
move Tzu-kung away from the fault-finding of others to the
positive improvement of himself.
Confucius had a way of correcting a person without telling
him directly that he was wrong. Chi Wen Tzu thought three
times before acting. Confucius heard of it and said that twice
is quite enough.30 Continually we see the master focusing
on and emphasizing what is right and proper; he did not say
that three times is wrong, but merely that twice is sufficient.
He does not want his students to be influenced by a poor example,
so he has to correct it in a positive way.
Confucius was not afraid of correcting men in power if they
asked for his advice. When Chi K'ang-tzu was upset about all
the thieves, he asked Confucius what he should do. Confucius
replied, "If only you were free from desire, they would
not steal even if you paid them to."31 This was hardly
the answer the ruler would have been expecting! Most people
want to try and change others' behavior by external means,
but here the master suggests changing one's internal state
so that others will also adapt their internal condition; then
conduct will improve in a natural way. If the ruler does not
horde and covet all the luxurious items, then others will
more likely be content with what they have, and stealing will
be a dangerous and superfluous task.
Confucius was asked about the treatment of parents by four
different men, and he gave four differing answers stressing
obedience according to propriety,32 behavior which would not
make parents anxious,33 sincere feeling of respect,34 and
proper demeanor.35 Not only was each answer probably suited
to the questioner, but also Confucius was able to examine
the issue from several perspectives for the sake of the other
listeners also.
Questions and Answers
In using the conversational style, Confucius would often answer
questions put to him by his students. However, he did not
attempt to answer if it concerned something which someone
else might know better than he. When he was asked about farming
and gardening, he recommended that the inquirer go to an experienced
husbandman and to an experienced vegetable gardener.36 He
also did not claim to know about such auspicious matters as
the Ancestral Sacrifice, but in this case he did not know
of anyone to recommend. "Anyone who knew the explanation
could deal with everything under Heaven as easily as I lay
this here." He laid his finger upon the palm of his hand.37
When a ruler asked him a question, Confucius was able to
give an answer which could probably work if applied. Duke
Ting asked him for a precept on how a ruler should use his
ministers and how the ministers should serve the ruler. Confucius
had a ready response: "A ruler should employ his ministers
according to the rules of propriety; ministers should serve
their ruler with faithfulness."38 Such an answer was
simple to understand and easy to remember.
Many of the questions Confucius answered had to do with virtue,
character and correct conduct. These questions he was eager
to answer if he could help to clarify the understanding of
students. Fan Ch'ih asked first about wisdom and then about
goodness. Confucius said, "Devote yourself earnestly
to the duties due to men, and respect spiritual beings but
keep them at a distance; this may be called wisdom.... The
good man first considers what is difficult and only then thinks
of success. Such a man may be called good."39 He extends
his descriptions by using natural metaphors showing the quality
and result of these virtues. "The wise man delights in
water; the good man delights in mountains. For the wise are
active, and the good are tranquil. The wise enjoy happiness,
and the good enjoy long life."40 On another occasion
Fan Ch'ih asked again about the good and the wise. Confucius
said that the good man loves men and the wise man knows men.
Fan Ch'ih did not understand the second part, so Confucius
told him, "By raising the straight and putting them on
top of the crooked, he can make the crooked straight."
Apparently Fan Ch'ih still did not understand, because he
asked a disciple to explain what Confucius had said; Tzu-hsia
gave an example from history to clarify the principle.41 In
this way Confucius encouraged his students to think about
his own enigmatic responses.
Confucius was always anxious to correct ideas and beliefs
which could be improved. Here he uses a rhetorical question
to make his point. Someone had asked him about the principle
of repaying injury with virtue. He responded, "In that
case how will you repay virtue? Rather, repay injury with
justice, and repay virtue with virtue."42 Confucius was
practical and discriminating in his ethics so that his precepts
could be easily followed and would prove successful. The following
incident shows how seriously some of the students took the
master's precepts. Tzu-chang asked how to get along with people,
the fundamental humanistic question. Confucius said, "Be
sincere and true to your word, serious and careful in your
actions; and you will get along even among barbarians. But
if you are not sincere and untrustworthy in your speech, frivolous
and careless in your actions, how will you get along even
among your own neighbors? When standing, see these principles
in front of you; in your carriage see them on the yoke. Then
you may be sure to get along." So Tzu-chang inscribed
these words upon his sash.43 Apparently the students often
memorized the master's precepts, and Confucius appears to
have encouraged this practice. This is probably how these
conversations were passed down until they were recorded in
The Analects.
Often an enterprising student would ask follow-up questions
in order to draw forth more information from his teacher.
Tzu-lu asked about the true gentleman, and Confucius said,
"He cultivates himself carefully." Tzu-lu asked
if that was all, and Confucius said, "He cultivates himself
so as to help other people." Tzu-lu asked again if that
was all. and Confucius said, "He cultivates himself so
as to help all the people. Even Yao and Shun found that difficult."44
Confucius began with the primary step - improve yourself.
If a person could do that, then he could help others. If he
could help some, then he could strive to help all humanity.
Thus he showed the successive stages. On another occasion
Tzu-lu asked about government, and Confucius said, "Lead
by example; work hard for them." Again Tzu-lu asked for
further instruction, and Confucius said, "Untiringly."45
Tzu-kung asked about the true knight and received an answer
related to an officer in the court. When he asked the next
rank, Confucius answered concerning one who acts well in his
community. Then Tzu-kung asked for the next rank, and Confucius
referred to the individual level in regard to truthful words
and successful accomplishment of one's tasks; these can be
attained even by one in humble circumstances. Finally Tzu-kung
asked about those in the present government, whereupon Confucius
grimaced and said they were not worth taking into account.46
Again we see how the questions enable him to discuss the various
levels of a situation.
Sometimes Confucius would ask his students questions. Often
these were very open-ended and personal, so that there was
no single right answer. Rather, each person was allowed to
express his personal preference, and they could learn from
and about each other. When Confucius asked Tzu-lu and Yen
Hui their life's ambition, he was likely to receive opposite
responses. Perhaps by the interplay of opposite temperaments,
each man's character might be broadened. Tzu-lu, as we have
seen, was active and oriented toward the physical. Yen Hui,
on the other hand, was quiet and sensitive. In fact Confucius
said he was not very helpful in discussions, because he agreed
with everything the master said.47 Maybe he could draw Yen
Hui out a little this way. Tzu-lu said, "I wish to have
horses, carriages, and fur clothes, to share them with my
friends, and I should not be upset if they wore them all out."
Yen Hui said, "I wish never to boast of my good qualities
and never to mention the trouble I have taken for others."
In the midst of the camaraderie of the group, Tzu-lu said
he wished to hear the master's ambition. Confucius said, "It
is my ambition to comfort the old, to be faithful to friends,
and to cherish the young."48
In another similar exercise, Confucius asked Tzu-lu, Tseng
Hsi, Jan Ch'iu and Kung-hsi Hua to forget for a moment that
they usually consider him as older than themselves, and to
say what office they would like to have. Tzu-lu was the first
to reply, and he did so characteristically as he said, "Give
me a country of a thousand war-chariots, hemmed in by powerful
enemies, or even invaded by hostile armies, with drought and
famine in addition; within three years I could make the people
courageous and teach them in what direction right conduct
lies." Confucius smiled at him, and asked Ch'iu, who
said, "Give me a domain of sixty or seventy li, or say
fifty or sixty, and within three years I could make plenty
abound among the common people. As to the principles of propriety
and music, I shall have to wait for a real gentleman."
Ch'ih then wished to be a junior assistant at the ceremonies
of the Ancestral Temple. When Tseng Hsi was asked, he stopped
the music he was softly playing and said his wishes were not
as select as the others. Confucius said that that did not
matter, but only that he should speak his desire. Tseng Hsi
said, "At the end of spring when the clothes of the season
are all complete, I would like to go with five or six newly-capped
youths and six or seven uncapped boys, and wash in the River
I, enjoy the breeze at rain altars, and return home singing."
Confucius sighed and said he agreed with him. Then the other
three men went away, and Confucius answered Tseng Hsi's questions
as to why the other three's wishes were not proper.49 Here
we see Confucius only agreeing with the one whose ambition
was practical and humble. If the other three left because
offended, then they missed the special attention which Tseng
Hsi received.
Often Confucius encouraged his students to think and discuss
the ideas on their own which he only tersely mentioned. For
example, he said his Way had an all-pervading unity. After
he left they discussed the issue, and Tseng Tzu said that
it was sincerity and benevolence.50 In this way Confucius
did not always hand-feed them, but stimulated his students
to think for themselves.
Correct Use of Language
Sincerity and trustworthiness were important to Confucius,
because words were often worthless if not backed up by equivalent
deeds. Language has the peculiar attribute of being able to
be true or false to actual situations, past or future actions.
In good human relations Confucius believed that honesty was
essential. "I do not know how a man without truthfulness
is to get along. How can a wagon be made to go if it has no
yoke-bar, or a carriage if it has collarbar?"51 Confucius
tells us that he learned that some men do not do what they
say; therefore wisdom demands that he not only listen to people's
words but watch their actions as well. Tsai Yu used to sleep
during the day. Not able to reform him, the master decided
to make it an object lesson, saying, "Rotten wood cannot
be carved, nor a wall of dried dung be trowelled. What use
is there in my scolding him anymore? There was a time when
I merely listened attentively to what people said, and took
for granted that they would carry out their words. Now I am
obliged not only to give ear to what they say, but also to
keep an eye on what they do. It was my dealings with Tsai
Yu that brought about the change."52
If the students were to learn to be true to their word, then
one way that Confucius could help them was to caution them
on their speech. "Do not be too ready to speak of it,
lest the doing of it should prove to be beyond your powers."53
The "it" could refer to anything, but it could have
strongly implied goodness (jen) itself. Confucius demonstrated
that he was especially careful about discussing this great
ideal since its perfection was so difficult to attain. When
Ssu-ma Niu asked about goodness, he used an appropriate pun.
"The good (jen) man is careful (jen) in speech."
Ssu-ma Niu wanted to know if this was the definition of goodness
-"careful in speech." Confucius replied, "Seeing
that the doing of it is so difficult, how can one be otherwise
than careful in talking about it."54 Perhaps he is implying
that no verbal definition would be sufficient, because goodness
can only be expressed through action.
Confucius hated the misuse of language, because it could
destroy communication and intellectual discussion. When Tzu-lu
got an uneducated man appointed governor of Pi, Confucius
felt that he was injuring someone; for if he was not capable
of the position he could only come to harm. Tzu-lu defends
his judgment by saying that he will only be in charge of peasants
and the ritual of the grain. Then he quotes a proverb which
may have been from Confucius himself; "Learning consists
of other things besides reading books." Since the maxim
has been misappropriated and does not apply to this man who
has not learned how to govern at all, Confucius severely criticizes
Tzu-lu's sophistry. "It is remarks of that kind that
make me hate glib people."55
A necessary part of communication through language is that
both parties agree on the meaning of the words which they
are using; otherwise confusion results. If Confucius thought
that the word another man was using did not mean the same
thing to him as to the other, he would ask him his definition
of it. Tzu-chang asked about the knight who is to be called
"influential." Confucius replied, "That depends
on what you mean by 'influential'?" It turns out that
Tzu-chang's idea of the word is really much closer to the
common meaning of the word "famous." Whereupon Confucius
proceeds to describe how the Chinese word for "influential"
implies the effective use of virtue (moral power) while anyone
with a cocky manner and a reputation, without necessarily
any good conduct, may became famous.56 Confucius spent considerable
time with his students describing what he meant by various
key terms so that they could understand them and apply them
in practice. This clarification of language was later to become
a key Confucian doctrine known as the "rectification
of names." Confucius was adamant that the mental communication
correspond to the actual reality, even in small matters such
as the name of a container. "A cornered vessel without
any corners! Should it be called a cornered vessel? Should
it?57
Metaphors and Poetry
Confucius used commonplace things as metaphors to describe
deeper truth. The following implies that pulling on the negative
trait too much can ruin the wholeness of the character. "He
who acts to work upon a loose strand destroys the whole fabric."58
In fact, some translate it metaphorically: "The study
of strange doctrines is injurious indeed!"59
Much like Heracleitus, Confucius recognized the continuity
of change as being like a river. Once when standing by a stream,
he pondered, "It passes on like this, never ceasing day
or night!"60 He liked to express philosophical ideas
the way the Book of Changes does, through natural imagery.
Here is a metaphor of the type of people who can endure hard
times due to their lasting virtue: "Only when the year
grows cold do we see that the pine and cypress are the last
to fade."61 By relating his ideas to natural events,
the students could see in actual experience what was to remind
them of the higher ideals.
Confucius loved to discuss poetry and songs with his students
and drew many lessons from them. This incident shows an enlightening
discussion, as Confucius improves on Tzu-kung's ideas and
then is pleased by a suitable reference to poetry.
Tzu-kung said, "What do you think of a man who is poor
and yet does not flatter, and the rich man who is not proud?"
Confucius replied, "They will do, but they are not as
good as the poor man who is happy with the Way, and the rich
man who loves the rules of propriety."
Tzu-kung said, "It is said in the Book of Poetry:
As a thing is cut and filed,
As a thing is carved and polished ...
Does that not mean what you have just said?"
Confucius said, "Ah Tz'u! Now I can begin to talk about
the odes with you. When I have told you what has gone before,
you know what is to follow."62
For Confucius, to be able to properly interpret poetry was
an advanced study, since he felt that very few of his disciples
were ready to do so. Tzu-hsia (nicknamed Shang) was another
disciple who could discuss poetry with the master. He asked
Confucius the meaning of these lines:
Oh the sweet smile dimpling,
The lovely eyes so black and white!
Plain silk that would take the colors.
Confucius said, "The painting comes after the plain
groundwork." Tzu-hsia correctly apprehends the symbolism
that the ceremonies come after virtue. The master is pleased:
"It is Shang who can bring out my meaning. Now I can
begin to talk about the odes with him."63 A student must
be prepared and demonstrate it before Confucius would consider
going into an advance study with him.
Confucius apparently gave his own son no particular treatment.
The son told one of the disciples that his father recommended
to him that he study the Odes, or he will not do well in conversation.
On another occasion Confucius asked him if he had studied
the rules of propriety; again the son replied he had not.
This was necessary in order to become established.64 Confucius
here did not command even his son to study certain things,
but merely said what the results would be if he did or did
not. The disciple was able to get this information by questioning
the son. Apparently Confucius made no requirements, but students
could not enter into the advanced studies until they knew
the preliminary subjects such as poetry and propriety. Even
so, these were secondary to virtue and character development.
Lines from poetry could be used as references to personal
character. Confucius felt that he and Yen Hui fulfilled the
maxim:
When in office, do your duty;
When not in office, stay out of sight.
Then Tzu-lu impetuously asked him whom he would take to help
him if he had command of the whole army. To soften the rejection,
Confucius quotes a line from a poem. "Not the man who
was ready to 'attack a tiger bare-handed or swim across a
river' not caring whether he lived or died, but I should take
someone who approaches difficulties with due caution, who
likes to plan precisely and carry it out."65 By using
poetic imagery as a mirror, the students of Confucius could
see themselves more clearly.
Poetry and ceremonies were often formal activities, and it
was in these cases that Confucius used the more universally
correct pronunciation rather than his native dialect.66 Confucius
as much as anyone knew the impressiveness and majesty of the
ancient heritage. This is why he criticized the Three Families'
use of the Yung Ode which was only appropriate for the Emperor's
Court.67
Confucius did not revere the poems to the point that he could
not correct their ideas, if it would help his students' understanding.
In the following lines he shows the shallowness of the feeling,
inspiring the listener to a deeper and more actualized love.
The flowery branch of the wild cherry,
How swiftly it flies back!
It is not that I do not love you;
But your house is far away.
Confucius said, "He did not really love her. Had he
done so, he would not have worried about the distance."68
Another poem which begins with the cry of the ospreys tells
of a lover grieved by separation from his lady, but concludes
with their happy union. In this poem Confucius elucidates
the proper handling of the two emotional extremes. "The
ospreys! Pleasures not carried to the point of debauch; grief
not carried to the point self-injury."69 Thus by interpreting
poetry well-known to his students, Confucius could help them
to refine their feelings.
Human Examples
Confucius used many human examples to illustrate various lessons.
He was especially fond of referring to the legendary emperors
of the ancient golden age (before 2000 BC). Because of their
great antiquity he could use them as models of perfection,
and no one could deny it. Yet if they were the greatest men
over a period of thousands of years, then maybe they were
great indeed! Confucius said, "Greatest as sovereign
was Yao. How majestic was he. 'There is no greatness like
the greatness of Heaven,' yet Yao could emulate it. So boundless
was it that the people could find no name for it; yet how
majestic were his achievements, how brilliant the expression
of his culture!"70 Here he points out how the best ruler
follows the Way of Heaven. Nearly as great were the other
two emperors of early antiquity whom Confucius loved to mention.
"How majestic was the manner of Shun and Yu! Everything
under Heaven was theirs, yet they remained aloof from it."71
These were the two who did not begin to rule until the people
came to them and they were assured that they had the mandate
of Heaven. In this way Confucius uses them as models of perfect
detachment. Yu was known as a great engineer who drained the
land so that it could be used for farming, before he was chosen
as emperor because of his ability. Nan-kung Kuo once pointed
out to Confucius that, "Yi was a mighty archer and Ao
overturned a boat; yet both of them came to a bad end. Whereas
Yu and Chi, who devoted themselves to agriculture, came into
possession of everything under Heaven." Confucius did
not respond until Nan-kung had left; then he praised him as
a true gentleman who knew how to value the power of virtue.72
This way the master could make clear the lesson to the students
without making Nan-kung egotistical by praising him to his
face.
Humility could accompany detachment as in the case of T'ai
Po, a legendary ancestor of the Chou sovereigns. "Of
T'ai Po it may indeed be said that he attained to the very
highest pitch of virtue. No less than three times he renounced
the sovereignty of everything under Heaven, without letting
the people praise his actions."73 When the last Shang
ruler's actions became too corrupt, the Chou clan attacked
him. Two brothers were famous for renouncing violence despite
their sufferings. Confucius cites them as worthy examples,
"Po I and Ch'i never bore old wrongs in mind and had
but the faintest feelings of resentment."74
Confucius used historical examples to contrast two kinds
of behavior, each insufficient. "Duke Wen of Chin could
rise to an emergency, but failed to carry out the rules of
propriety. Duke Huan of Ch'i carried out the rules of propriety,
but failed when it came to an emergency."75 The history
lesson goes on. Tzu-lu said, "When Duke Huan put to death
Prince Chiu (his brother), Shao Hu gave his life in an attempt
to save the prince; but Kuan Chung did not. Must one not say
that he fell short of goodness?" However, Confucius suggests
they look at other considerations even though he may not exemplify
perfect goodness, saying, "That Duke Huan was able to
convene the rulers of all the states without resorting to
the use of his war-chariots was due to Kuan Chung. But as
to his goodness, as to his goodness!?"76 Tzu-kung felt
that he was not good, so Confucius makes even more clear the
benefits he gave to their culture. "Through having Kuan
Chung as his minister, Duke Huan became leader of the feudal
princes, uniting and bringing order to everything under Heaven;
so that even today the people are benefiting by what he then
did for them. Were it not for Kuan Chung we might now be wearing
our hair loose and folding our clothes to the left (as the
barbarians). We must not expect from him what ordinary men
and women regard as fidelity---to go off and strangle oneself
in some ditch or drain, and no one the wiser."77 In this
way Confucius shows them how to take into consideration the
overall situation.
Confucius did not accept blindly every legend, but examined
facts such as with the famed paragon of truthfulness. "How
can we call even the great Wei-sheng Kao upright? When someone
asked him for vinegar he went and begged it from people next
door, and then gave it as though it were his own gift."78
Each of these examples from legend and history gave the students
ethical questions to consider and discuss, so they themselves
would know better how to behave.
Confucius also discussed contemporary issues. He suggested
the possibility that the neighboring state and his own state
could be improved. "A single change could bring Ch'i
to the level to Lu; and a single change would bring Lu to
the Way."79 Such a vague statement would probably stimulate
the disciples to think how this could be done. Is it necessary
for everyone to be educated in order to realize the Way in
a state? Actually most people are followers. "The common
people may be made to follow the Way, but may not be made
to understand it."80 Understanding requires making an
effort to learn, and who can force anyone to do that? However,
the actions of good men tend to influence others.
Confucius often pointed to certain men's qualities as object
lessons for his students. He cites Tzu-chien, one of is disciples,
to illustrate the mutual influence of men upon each other.
"A gentleman indeed is such a one as he! If the land
of Lu were indeed without gentlemen, how could he have developed
his character."81 The master might even use himself as
an example if it was appropriate. After Confucius had gone
into the Grand Temple and asked questions about everything
there, someone wondered if he really was an expert in the
rules of propriety. When the master heard this, he said, "Just
so! Such is a rule of propriety."82 He did not go out
of his way to use himself as an example, but quickly made
the point when it came up spontaneously.
Confucius could be skeptical about what someone said if he
had reason to be. When Tsang Wu Chung went into exile for
conspiracy to revolt, he seized the fief of Fang. Then he
sent a message to the duke that he would go into exile if
Fang was given to his brother; the request was granted. Confucius
perceiving manipulation, commented, "It is said that
he applied no pressure upon his prince; but I do not believe
it."83 Here was a subtle political lesson for his students.
We have seen how Confucius pointed out areas in which the
bold Tzu-lu (Yu) could improve, but he also used his positive
qualities as an example. It was said that the impetuous Tzu-lu
"never slept over a promise," and Confucius said
of him, "It is Yu who could settle a lawsuit with half
a word."84 Having shown where he needed improving by
a quote from literature, he also used the same means to set
forth his good points. "'Wearing a shabby help-quilted
gown, yet capable of standing unabashed with those who wore
fox and badger.' That would apply quite well to Yu, would
it not?
Who harmed none, was foe to none,
Did nothing that was not right."
So taken up with this praise was Tzu-lu that he kept on continually
chanting those lines to himself until finally Confucius had
to awaken him again to higher wisdom. "Come now, the
wisdom contained in them is not the full extent of excellence."85
Confucius mentioned a Ch'i minister (died 500 BC) who was
famous as a wise advisor, to illustrate friendly behavior.
"Yen P'ing Chung was a good example of what one's intercourse
with one's fellowmen should be. However long he knew anyone,
he always maintained the same scrupulous courtesy."86
He pointed to a Cheng minister who died in 522 BC as an exemplar
of four of the virtues which belong to the Way of the true
gentleman: in his private conduct he was humble; in serving
his superiors he was respectful; in nourishing the people
he was kind; in ordering the people he was just.87 Yet there
were some qualities which no one seemed to fulfill completely.
Confucius said, "I have never yet seen a man who was
truly steadfast." Someone suggested Shen Ch'eng. The
master replied, "Ch'eng! He is at the mercy of his desires.
How can he be called steadfast?"88 By this oblique reference,
the students could learn to become more steadfast by watching
their desires.
Cogent Sayings
Perhaps Confucius is most famous for his aphoristic sayings,
many of which became well-known proverbs of the master. He
seemed to have a way of making a moral statement which could
inspire one to virtue without it seeming like he was preaching
or telling them what to do. He expressed his wisdom as instruction
for anyone who wished to take advantage of it rather than
as direct commandments. Let us look at some of the statements
he made to inspire and enlighten his listeners toward a better
life. On the steadiness of governing virtuously, he uses a
natural metaphor. "A ruler who governs his state by the
power of virtue is like the north polar star, which remains
in its place while all the other stars revolve around it."89
How is this done as compared to how rulers usually attempt
it? "Lead the people by governmental measures and keep
order by laws and punishments, and they will try to avoid
them, and will lose all self-respect. Lead them by virtue
and keep order by the rules of propriety, and they will keep
their self-respect and set themselves right."90 Strong
laws and harsh punishments had not worked well in the long
run. Confucius believed in and recommended the influence of
moral goodness; for once a person attained it, he could regulate
himself.
In human relations, if one tried to take advantage of another
what will be the result? "If one's acts are motivated
by profit, he will have many enemies."91 Confucius does
not say "Do this" or "Do not do this,"
but rather elucidates the consequence of various actions,
negative and especially positive. He describes how a true
gentleman behaves, inspiring others to freely decide to become
what seems so admirable. What about competition, as in sports,
for example? "Gentlemen never compete. You will say that
in archery they do so. But even then they bow and make way
for one another when they are going up to the archery-ground,
when they are coming down and at the subsequent drinking bout.
Thus even when competing, they still remain gentlemen."92
Is not good sportsmanship a sign of a cultured person? In
these situations it is often the motive which indicates the
person's character. "In ancient times men studied for
the sake of self-improvement; nowadays men study in order
to impress other people."93 Such a statement might bring
an inner realization to a student and lead him to change his
attitude for the better.
Confucius encouraged his students to consider long-range
problems, which some try to ignore. Why? Because it was practical.
"He who is not concerned about what is far off will soon
find something worse nearby."94 Although courage is not
one of the highest Confucian virtues, it is still essential
in action. "To see what is right and not do it is cowardice."95
Once an action has taken place, however, what good does it
do to cast blame? When one of his disciples brought such a
charge against Duke Ai's ancestors while talking with the
duke, Confucius made the following suggestion: "What
is over and done, one need not discuss. What has already taken
its course, one need not criticize; what already belongs to
the past, one need not censure."96 Wisdom often involves
discernment of when to speak and when not to. Confucius tells
us one reason why. "When a man may be spoken with, not
to speak to him is to waste a man. When a man may not be spoken
with, to speak to him is to waste one's words. The truly wise
never wastes a man; but on the other hand, he never wastes
his words either."97 The reference here is probably to
the discussion of the Way, which everyone is not ready to
hear.
As a teacher Confucius was always encouraging his students
to learn. Here he uses an everyday metaphor. "Learn as
if you were following someone you could not catch up to, as
though it were someone you were frightened of losing."98
No matter how much one knows, there is always more to learn;
and no matter how advanced one becomes, there is always room
for improvement. Yet for Confucius it was a joyful process
to know that one was doing his best. "Is it not pleasant
to learn continually and put it into practice? Is it not delightful
to have friends coming from afar? Is one not a gentleman if
he does not feel hurt even though he is not recognized?"99
Regardless of how the world treated him, Confucius could still
maintain a positive attitude and go on learning and teaching.
From the material that is available to us, we have examined
several of the techniques which Confucius utilized in order
to lead others toward greater wisdom. Before we look at whether
they were successful or not in terms of actual results among
his students, we need to investigate the subject matter which
Confucius emphasized.
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